Political Economy of Pakistan free essay sample

Politically, religious fundamentalism, sectarian violence, ethnic differences, terrorism and regional economic disparities have made country unstable which contributed toward the unsatisfactory economic condition. It is usually believed that economy grows in presence of political solidity but in the case of Pakistan it rejects the conventional wisdom. Much of countries economic growth has been witnessed in the military regimes which ruled country for nearly three decades. The reasons for this will also be discussed later. Pakistan has been ruled for 29 years by four Military Governments . Army has a significant role in Pakistan’s politics, foreign affairs and supporting individuals. Moreover, the growing economic and corporate interests of the Pakistan army, makes it an important stake holder in decisions regarding trade, investment and issues of property rights . No doubt, Pakistan’s military is the most power institute of the country. The fact that military dominates Pakistan’s political, domestic, regional and global scene, is reflection of power of military but it also how the failure of civil society and political institutions. We will write a custom essay sample on Political Economy of Pakistan or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In order to examine the nature of Pakistan’s economic and political past, a history can be divided into seven different periods which are chronologically discussed below. Civilian Bureaucracy and Industrialization: 1947-58 Pakistan came in to being as a devastated country after partition of united India. The geographic location of East Pakistan with India separating West Pakistan put the country at a serious disadvantage. The country started with meager resources. The old remnants of British regime were the bureaucracy which became powerful and started running the state and they were responsible to ensure the survival of the country in hard time with their policies. The political entities included landowners, feudal and a number of tribal leaders. Since there was no industry, there was no industry related individual class and this led to the domination of bureaucracy in politics. The political equation consisted of bureaucracy, land owning politicians and tribal leaders. After making unexampled gains from Korean War bonanza, the mercantile capitalists emerged and strengthened their economic position in the society. Many traders who earned money and made profits in 1950 started investing in industry and later emerged as industrialists in 1960. The industrial process which took place in mid and late 1950’s was encouraged by the bureaucracy which played an important role in establishing industrial units in the country. State owned institutions like PICIC and PIDC encouraged the development and growth of industry. The import substitution industrialization policy was adopted by the government institutions and bureaucracy and it acted as an impetus to the nature and direction of industry. The first decade seem to bureaucracy led and assisted industrialization. The bureaucracy led the political settlement and determined the outcomes of policy and purpose. Industry became the subordinate partner in that process. Other political groups had very little to offer at that time because of being nascent. The landlords and tribal leaders have little to say in politics and the economic policy was not directed toward well being of them. The growth rates in agriculture were poor and industry was prioritized over agriculture which was the livelihood of 80% of country’s population which dwelled in rural areas. Since much of bureaucracy was composed of urban migrants from India, they had little interest in agriculture. Industrialist gained high profits in early year but they never become a political force and were reliant on bureaucracy. Political wrangling between landowning class politicians did not allow them to become a force. With porous ranks among political groups, the military stepped in to reinstate law and order and continue to run bureaucratic capitalism. Civil and Military Bureaucratic Capitalism: 1958-71 The military emerged as a stabilizing actor under whose authority and rule, industrialization with the help of bureaucracy and emerging industrialists could grow more. The very high growth rates in the economy and large scale manufacturing (LSM) would not have been possible without a central command and military was the only institution able of reliable at that time. Ayub Khan took full control of state in October 1958 and this was the golden era of Pakistan’s history. GDP growth rate rose to 6% from 3% in the 1950’s. The manufacturing sector grew by 9% annually and agriculture at a respectable 4%. The agriculture sector was revolutionized by increase in production and land reforms. This resulted in the rise of capitalist agriculture development. This produced a consumer class for industrial products without which industrial revolution could not have taken place. Shahid Javed Burki argues that, â€Å"toward the late 1950’s, landlords were again emerging on the political horizon, and Ayub Khan’s shifting of power from Karachi to Lahore and Rawalpindi resulted in more representation from indigenous and rural Pakistan, which is on reason why agriculture gained prominence throughout the decade†. 1 The 1960’s was a decade of emergence of new political groups and economic classes. In agriculture the control of large landowners was not completely broken but it was certainly loosen due to the emergence of middle class farmers resulting from the green revolution. In rural areas small manufacturing units and skilled and technical workers emerged to provide services to new economy. The Basic democracies system accommodated the new agriculture capitalists and the rural politicians were now the part of the alliance of military and bureaucracy. Elsewhere, the income inequalities between East and West Pakistan increased and resentment grew in Bengalis against the West Pakistan which resulted in widespread movement, which ultimately led to separation of Bengal in 1971. The Socialist Seventies of Bhutto: 1971-77 Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto emerged as a popular political leader after the glorious decade of development and growth. Groups, other than industrialists, bureaucracy and military, rallied behind Bhutto and became source of his power. Bhutto was a staunch supporter of socialism and this is reflected in his government policies. In the early years of his regime, labor, peasants, farmers and rural and urban educated class hailed his socialist policies. Bureaucracy and industrialists became target of his socialist policies along with large landowning class and were discredited. However, bureaucracy, military and landowning class again emerged after few years. Bureaucracy became more powerful in the awake of nationalization and strengthened its hold over means of productions. The military became favored due to an armed rebellion in Baluchistan. The 1972 land reforms did not proved to be a success and land owners again gained prominence and a number of large landowners became members of Pakistan People’s Party. Educated left leaning middle class was against this but persisted with his social reform agenda. The nationalization of banks was carried out and it broke the link between industrialists and finance sector and industrialists fled the capital away. Small scale industry and informal sector became backbone of country. The journey to modernization and economic growth ended and along with natural disasters and oil price shock of 1970 became the reason of removal of Bhutto. The urban middle class, military and bureaucracy were instrumental in removing Bhutto. Hence, between 1947 and 1977 large scale development took place and an urban middle class emerged which was economically sound and young but was non-existent in politics. Industrialists who earned good profits and put country on growth track became ghosts in 1970 and feudal gained a good hand in politics in Sind, Punjab and parts of Baluchistan. However, bureaucracy was the only class which does not lost its importance and continues to influence on the political structure of the country. A Military State and the Middle Classes: 1977-88 The overthrow of Bhutto government by a military coup in 1977 brought General Zia ul Haq to power. It strengthened the supremacy of the civil and military bureaucracy not just on political map of Pakistan but also on allocation and production of economic resources. With the political and governmental roles and authority in hand, the civil and military bureaucracy emerged as an important and well-established unit in economy. Although, Zia was a staunch supporter of private sector in economy but the nationalized industries were not denationalized because it allowed the bureaucracy to play an important role in the economy. Many retired and serving military personals were posted on lucrative positions in the public sector. The private sector looked up to the military and they established close ties with the military in order to foster. Also one important factor was the large amount of military and economic aid by USA due to Soviet-Afghan war. Corruption, smuggling, drug mafia, sectarian violence and AK-47 culture were introduced which proved to be a disaster for country in future. The Gulf remittances were also an important factor in lifting up the economy. Almost 20 billion dollars were remitted to Pakistan from 1977 to 1987. Economic conditions improved as GDP grew at 6. 6% annually with agriculture at 4% and large scale manufacturing at 9% but fiscal deficit widened to 8%. Domestic borrowings in long run affected economy and Pakistan approached IMF in 1988. Zia regime as a whole produced military industrialists and businessmen with armed forces personal making fortunes from Soviet-Afghan war invested in business and became bosses in the private sector. Since, political activity was banned until 1985. Due to restrictions, those with means, especially the rising middle class, were to contest the elections for first time in local bodies’ elections. They were able to enter politics because of the absence of rich, significant and established political actors. However, the military had full control of political scenario in the country. The Unstable Democratic Interregnum: 1988-99 After the death of General Zia ul Haq in a plane bomb blast in 1988, Pakistan began its journey of democracy again. In this democratic period four elections were held of which most were rigged and manipulated. Nine different governments (four elected, four interim and one military after October 1999 coup) ruled country in this time period. Mian Nawaz Sharif contested from platform of IJI in 1991, most of his compatriots in IJI were those who benefited from the Zia regime, who were industrialists and joined class of politics. The 1990s was the time when the economic interests of middle and influential Pakistan became expressed into politics and into a desire to use politics for economic gain and political control. The 1990s witnessed high instability in Pakistan. The bureaucratic and other hierarchical non-democratic institutions and organizations interfered in the democratic transfer of power. The rise of middle class continued but it was not powerful enough to be a political force and relied on military in this regard. The economic situation on the other hand deteriorated. The GDP rate lowered to 4% and foreign investment ratio fell to 13. 9%. The fiscal deficit remained above 7% and external deficits 4-5% led to amassing of large domestic and foreign debts. Social sector expenditures were cut down to service the debt. Pakistan lost its share in world trade and the economic progress become stagnant. Overall, if the political governments have been able to complete their tenure, it would have been much better in economic terms as policies implemented would have brought fruits in long term. The Return of Military to the Power: 1999-2007 General Pervez Musharraf led the military coup in 1999 to seize the power and removed the Prime Minister, Mian Nawaz Sharif from the office to save the country from corruption and put economy on the course of growth. The Musharraf regime was similar to other military regimes with regard to Local Government Election and devolution of power. Like the regime of General Zia ul Haq, Musharraf also became part of the Afghan war after 9/11 attacks and it brought Pakistan good fortunes in term of military and economic aid which for a time period strengthened the economy but it was temporary. General Musharraf instilled military personals into different public institutes military actively took control of every public sector department and strengthened the control over economy. Unlike previous military governments, Musharraf faced a more powerful, free and vibrant media in the country which in the end much contributed to his demise and downfall. In addition to that, the external influences like the Super power, USA much determined Pakistan’s domestic and foreign policies in the awake of Afghan invasion. Pakistan’s religious parties for first time formed an alliance and took a number of seats in parliament and dominated it and provided a shield to the regime. General Musharraf also won the support of urban middle class and elites who supported him as an enlightened military ruler and who benefited from his economic policies. The economic situation of the country became better and growth rates averaged at 7%, poverty and unemployment fell by 5-10% and 6. % from 8. 4% respectively. The investment rate grew to 23% of GDP and foreign reserves also showed a significant improvement. The global financial crisis and recession in 2007 hampered Pakistan’s economic progress and growth halted as the demand for Pakistani products in OECD markets fell. The judicial crisis and the return of important political leaders f rom abroad along with governance problems and military operation in Baluchistan added to unpopularity of the military government and it finally ended after 2008 elections. The Post Musharraf Era: 2008-Present After the 2008 elections, Pakistan People’s Party came into Power and the democratic vehicle started to move forward but it has not been as effective it should be in order to improve the political and economic situation. With a slender majority in parliament, the government is reliant on its allies and it is not able to refuse their illegitimate demands and to keep everyone happy, the government is over spending and domestic and foreign borrowings have put the economy in a situation of jeopardy. Inflation has jumped up to double figures and the lower and middle class have severely been hit by it. Rise of oil prices, energy crisis, and violence in Karachi, KPK and Baluchistan has lowered the economic growth rates and hampered the progress. Industrialist class has been severely hit by energy crisis and textile products export has fell down. The unemployment rates are high and according to a UN report the 50% of total population is estimated to be living in poverty. GDP growth rate is around 3% and fiscal deficit is above 6% and currency is at all time low against dollar. Natural disasters like floods have also lowered the agriculture productivity which is major pillar of economy. Overall services sector has grown and government has actively created new jobs on political basis to accommodate its supporters and allies. There is unrest among the population and this situation has given a chance to parties like PTI, which is a youth party to become popular and it can bring a change in the politics of Pakistan in future. External Influences External influences have also been an important factor in shaping Pakistan’s political and economic structure. From early days, Pakistan allied with USA gainst communism and this contributed much to an elite capitalist state in which large landowners and industrialists dominated the political and economic scenario along with military and bureaucracy. The IMF and World Bank led Structural Adjustment Programs put Pakistan on the path of liberalization and privatization which has resulted in a more powerful economic elite industrialists and politicians. The result of such capitalist programs is that income inequality has gro wn over the period of time and there is a wide gap between the income levels across country. The poor and lower middle class has almost no say in politics as they are not much educated and aware of their civil and political rights and cannot think further than earning for livelihood. The long enmity with India has also a major impact on the country’s economy. Much of resources and funds have been directed toward defense to secure the country against any military threat from India. It is also a cause of not having trade relations with India, which could have proved to beneficial for Pakistan in terms of economy. Recently, both countries have opened negotiations on trade and commerce. India emerged as powerful and dynamic economy in last decade and it has been largely due to a stable political environment unlike Pakistan where military has ruled mostly. Conclusion In a nutshell, Pakistan has not developed politically and economically in 64 years because of historical bureaucratic structure, an elite landowning politician class and most importantly a political military institution. The middle class has been a junior partner with military and bureaucracy for its own vested economic interests and due to this there has been no significant positive change in the political and economic structure. The external western influences have also played a part to strengthen the military and bureaucratic class and politician because of their particular interests and their funds and aid have been much used for political purpose rather for economic growth. The widespread violence in the aftermath of Soviet- Afghan war and US led invasion still haunts the country and most severely poor masses have been affected from this situation. A friendly neighbor in form of India could have been a blessing but on both sides of border it never happened to be a good fortune. Much of resources have been diverted for arms and ammunition rather than for education and economy. This all has contributed to a porous social, political and economic structure and a bleak future for democracy in the country. References: * Burki, Shahid Javed, Pakistan: A Nation in the Making, Westview Press, Boulder, 1986, p. 112. Bibliography: * S. Akbar Zaidi, Issues in Pakistan’s Economy, Second Edition * Dr Isharat Hussain, Pakistan and Afghanistan: Domestic Pressure and Regional Threats, The Role of Politics in Pakistan’s Economy.

Free Essays on Adams

Ansel Adams: An American Icon Ansel Adams was a monumental photographer who set a precedent for those who followed him years after. I. During the 1920s a type of soft- focus style was extremely popular. A. Adam’s earlier photographs portrayed this style, as at this time he was just getting started on his photography career. B. Photos that Adams produced in the 1920s would only cost his fans a small fee of only one dollar. C. Black and white photography at this time was also not considered an art but Adams soon changed that retrospective. II. As Ansel was just getting his start during this time he had many accomplishments in years to follow. A. He was born in San Francisco in 1902 to a wealthy family and dreamed of becoming a concert pianist. His dream soon changed when he was taken on a family trip to Yosemite and experienced the intensity of photography. B. By 1930 Adams had met Paul Strand who helped him develop his well known crisp photography. Adams self taught himself the zone system which helped him capture fresh pictures through developing a spectrum of 12 shades of black to white. C. Adams along with Edward Wesson and Imogen Cunningham founded f/64, a group that developed technically flawless pictures. He also assisted in finding the Department of Photography at the Museum of Modern Arts. As a photomuralist for the Department of Interior during World War II he produced pictures of Japanese American internment camps. Ansel Adams also helped establish the 1st photography academic department at The California School of Fine arts in San Francisco, now known as the San Francisco Art Institute. D. In 1984 Adams passed away because of a heart failure due to a form of cancer. After his death his name still lived on when the U.S. Congress dedicated an Ansel Adams wilderness center. In Yosemite National Park standing tall, Mount Ansel Adams and now an Ansel Adams center in San Francisco to celebrate his past wo... Free Essays on Adams Free Essays on Adams Ansel Adams: An American Icon Ansel Adams was a monumental photographer who set a precedent for those who followed him years after. I. During the 1920s a type of soft- focus style was extremely popular. A. Adam’s earlier photographs portrayed this style, as at this time he was just getting started on his photography career. B. Photos that Adams produced in the 1920s would only cost his fans a small fee of only one dollar. C. Black and white photography at this time was also not considered an art but Adams soon changed that retrospective. II. As Ansel was just getting his start during this time he had many accomplishments in years to follow. A. He was born in San Francisco in 1902 to a wealthy family and dreamed of becoming a concert pianist. His dream soon changed when he was taken on a family trip to Yosemite and experienced the intensity of photography. B. By 1930 Adams had met Paul Strand who helped him develop his well known crisp photography. Adams self taught himself the zone system which helped him capture fresh pictures through developing a spectrum of 12 shades of black to white. C. Adams along with Edward Wesson and Imogen Cunningham founded f/64, a group that developed technically flawless pictures. He also assisted in finding the Department of Photography at the Museum of Modern Arts. As a photomuralist for the Department of Interior during World War II he produced pictures of Japanese American internment camps. Ansel Adams also helped establish the 1st photography academic department at The California School of Fine arts in San Francisco, now known as the San Francisco Art Institute. D. In 1984 Adams passed away because of a heart failure due to a form of cancer. After his death his name still lived on when the U.S. Congress dedicated an Ansel Adams wilderness center. In Yosemite National Park standing tall, Mount Ansel Adams and now an Ansel Adams center in San Francisco to celebrate his past wo...

Communicative Intent in Autistic Children

Communicative Intent in Autistic Children Communicative Intent is critical for developing communication skills. In typical children the desire to communicate wants and desires is innate: even if they have impaired hearing, they will indicate wants and desires through eye gaze, pointing, even vocalizations. Many children with disabilities, especially developmental delays and autism spectrum disorders, are not hard-wired to respond to other individuals in their environment.  They may also lack Theory of Mind, or the ability to understand that other people have thoughts that are separate from their own.  They may even believe that other people are thinking what they are thinking, and may get angry because significant adults do not know what is happening. Children Who Lack Communicative Intent Children with autism spectrum disorders, especially children with apraxia (difficulty with forming words and sounds) may even show less interest than skill in communication. They may have difficulty understanding agency the ability of an individual to impact his or her environment. Sometimes loving parents will over-function for a child, anticipating his (most often) or her every need.  Their desire to care for their child may eliminate opportunities for the children to express intent.  The failure to support building communicative intent may also lead to maladaptive or violent behavior, as the child wants to communicate, but significant others have not been attending to the child. Another behavior that masks a childs lack of communicative intent is echolalia.  Echolalia is when a child will repeat what he or she hears on the television, from an important adult, or on a favorite recording.  Children who have speech may not actually be expressing desires or thoughts, merely repeating something they have heard.  In order to move a child from echolalia to intent, it is important for the parent/therapist/teacher to create situations where the child must communicate. Developing Communicative Intent Communicative intent can be developed by letting children see preferred items but blocking their access to those same items. They can learn to point or perhaps exchange a picture for the item (PECS, Picture Exchange Communication System.) However the communicative intent is developed, it will be reflected in a childs repeated attempt to acquire something he or she wants. Once a child has found a means to express communicative intent by pointing, by bringing a picture, or by uttering an approximation, he or she has their foot on the first step toward communication.  Speech pathologists may support teachers or other therapy providers (ABA, or TEACCH, perhaps) to assess whether the child will be able to produce vocalizations that they can control and shape into understandable utterances. Example Jason Clarke, the BCBA in charge of Justins ABA therapy, was concerned that Justin spent most of his time in self-stimulatory behavior, and seemed to show little communicative intent during his observation of Justin in his home.

History of Christian Thought Final Exam Questions Essay

History of Christian Thought Final Exam Questions - Essay Example The issue of abortion has always been a sensitive subject which has given rise to a host of debates. If the human embryo is considered as a human entity, then of course no one has the authority to destroy it, not even the parents who have created it. On the other hand, if the embryo is viewed as a portion of human tissue or as a coagulation of human cells, then this gives rise to a new argument in the debate. As people are usually believed to be endowed with right of determining the fate of their tissues, they are justified to do whatever they wish with the human embryo. A couple who do not want children can either donate their already formed embryo to an infertile couple, or destroy the embryo altogether. Therefore, when human beings are accorded the â€Å"ownership rights† over their own tissues and physical body parts, the act of abortion finds a justification in such a case (Gunning, Szoke, p.198). 2. The prevailing laws do not recognize human beings as the owners of their own tissues or any parts of their body. This is known as the legislation of â€Å"No property in the Body†. In such a situation, how can people be considered to have an â€Å"ownership right† over their tissues? 1A. ... The reason is that even is we have property is tissue; there seem to be other overriding moral considerations. If we have ownership rights in tissues, this implies that people should be allowed to destroy their organs and tissues after their life ends when these are in the condition of saving other people’s lives. 3. People providing with the rights of ownership of tissues can lead to various problems in the society. People belonging to the lower middle class and those in need of money can find the selling of their own tissues as a legal profession which may endanger the cause of the humanity. Ownership of tissues would also make the people claim that their bodies parts comprised of various tissues are their own property and they had the right to sell it or do anything according to their wish. Like the trafficking of human, people will start making further inhuman activity and this time it will be their own body parts. The right of ownership of human tissues will definitely le ad to the trading activity and within a short period of time, it will eventually turnout to be a huge profitable business. The ownership right of tissues will result in the increase in number of killing of the unwanted embryo and will prevent the emergence of millions of life into the world. 4. 3A. the framing of the law regarding the ownership of rights will be done considering the social aspect and in that case will that create any further problems? And the killing of embryo is a punishable act in most of the countries and how will it further hamper the cause? 1N. in the presence of Laws and regulation the crimes rate have not taken a considerable decrease throughout the world the permission of providing the ownership right will

Vitamin D and Cancer Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Vitamin D and Cancer - Research Paper Example There are some studies which showed that increase intake of foods and dietary supplements containing high vitamin D content is associated with decrease incidence of different malignancies for instance colorectal carcinoma, the fact whether vitamin D decreases the incidence of other cancers for example breast, pancreatic or prostate cancer is still unclear. [1] Calcitriol, the hormonally active form of this vitamin have been tested and proven in many of the animal models that it has got growth inhibitory as well as favorable effects on the differentiation of the tumor cells resulting in the slowing down of the tumor cells. ... which were living in the areas with increase sun exposures suffered from a skin cancer usually Squamous Cell Carcinoma (S.C.C) which is not a fatal one usually due to its less likelihood to metastasize but these people showed decrease incidence of serious internal malignancies like breast, prostate or colorectal cancers which supported the fact that vitamin D has a protective effect by decreasing the incidence of malignancies. The role of the vitamin D remains unclear until in the late 1980s when two epidemiologists named Garland brothers stated that adequate sunlight decreased the incidence of Colon Cancer. They also observed that women who were exposed to adequate sunlight have fifty percent less mortality from breast cancer then the women who has relatively less sun exposure and afterwards another researcher named Gary Schwartz observed the same to be true for the prostate cancer and they all were of the view that vitamin D is the main agent behind this observation. The Garlands a lso showed that low levels of vitamin D also relates with the development of colorectal cancers which also explained their earlier observation in which they showed that people who developed S.C.C were at decreased risk of developing cancers like prostatic carcinoma or colorectal carcinoma and it is due to the increase blood level of Calcitriol in these patients owing to increase exposure to sunlight. Figure 1: chemical structure of vitamin D [20] 1.1.1. Vitamin D and the Colon Cancer: The colon cancer is one of the deadliest and the prevalent form of solid malignancy. In 1980’s Garland Brothers showed that colon cancer has got a decreased incidence in people living in the sunny areas and this was possibly due to increase concentration of Calcitriol in their blood. In 1985, scientists

Jack Kerouac’s The Dharma Bums Essay -- Biography Biographies Essays

Jack Kerouac’s The Dharma Bums Jack Kerouac’s The Dharma Bums does not fall too far from a basic description of his life. Kerouac spent the bulk of his writing career riding trains from city to city, meeting people and writing books and poetry. He was among the premier writers of the Beat Generation, a group of primarily urban poets and writers who put the basics of life and their spiritual nuances into poetry with a beat. The book, The Dharma Bums, is a window into the daily structure of the Beat Generation. Kerouac wrote The Dharma Bums while living the life of a bum, riding from city to city as a stowaway on various trains. He used an old portable typewriter that fed from a large roll of paper, into the typewriter, and back into a roll. This was a source of irritation to his publisher later on as Kerouac handed him a large roll of typed paper while announcing his new book. The book took only two weeks to write. It was one book of an unintentionally related series later referred to as the Dulouz Tales. Kerouac’s previous book, On the Road, defined the Beat Generation, and while expanding this explanation, The Dharma Bums focused more on the reasoning of the Beat Generation. Focusing often on the Zen Buddhist beliefs of Ray, Kerouac’s character in The Dharma Bums, and Japhy, Ray’s best friend and spiritual mentor, the book often loses itself in pondering the meanings of life. Kerouac not only broaches the Zen Buddhist beliefs on the various issues, but also touches on how Christians, Taoists, and Muslims see the same issues. All this is affected in the dry, down to earth style of writing Kerouac became famous for. Kerouac’s matter of fact style is evident throughout The Dharma Bums. When, during conversation, Kerou... ...lly realized. The Dharma Bums, as a whole, supplies an inside examination of the life of a beat poet. It allows the reader to watch and almost experience the questions and conflicts faced by many young beatniks during the late 50’s and early 60’s. Travelling from the cities to the summits of the Sierra Mountains, The Dharma Bums not only answered those questions for some, but apparently sparked questions in many. Following the publishing of The Dharma Bums, one year after On The Road, something began called the "rucksack revolution" as hundreds of young people grabbed their backpacks and rucksacks and headed for the hills and trains and fields, searching out their own answers to their own questions. The Dharma Bums had broken through to many, and where On the Road placed the Beat Generation on the map, The Dharma Bums gave detailed directions on how to get there.

Newspaper analysis by Marx, Durkheim or Weber`s Theories

The issue of inequality has been widely discussed in many different contexts during various periods of human history. The fate of Australian aborigines requires special attention, due to its importance in the modern Australian society. As the article â€Å"Challenge to Improve Aborigines’ Lot† suggests, Australian aborigines claim that they are discriminated against and that they do not have equal rights with other members of Australian society. They state that most of the problems which they are currently facing come from their inequality in the society.They are destined to suffer from high rates of unemployment, racism, shorter life expectancy, high mortality rates among children and many other problems. Aborigines claim that they do not have equal opportunities with other members of society, and therefore they are not able to enjoy benefits of Australian society as much as other Australians. Theory of sagacious theorist Karl Marx supports the thesis of Jim Everett, o ne of the aborigines’ leaders, concerning the importance of fighting for their rights and even establishing an autonomous state of aborigines for their benefit. Karl Marx argued in his theory that dominant class oppresses working class in the society, which leads to alienation and estrangement of the working class from the results of its work.An important thesis which supports the main idea of the article is that, according to Marx, laws have been designed to serve the interests of capitalism and the ruling class of capitalists. Therefore, the laws in Australian society have been created to serve the interests of the dominant class and oppress aborigines. As Marx claimed, capitalists are able to oppress the working class with the help of the laws which exist in the society. Every single law which regulates the relations in the society is created in order to further increase the gap between the ruling class and the working class.Working people get poorer and poorer the more th ey produce because capitalists take the surplus value which they create. Laws let capitalists obtain the profits which are originated by companies. Even though working people would probably like to change the law and be capable to benefit from the results of their own work, they are not able to do that because they do not have enough power. Aborigines would like to change the law in such a way so that they are able to get all of the benefits from the society in the same manner as the ruling class is getting them. Unfortunately, they are not able to do that because the laws in Australian society have been created to serve the interests of the ruling elite.It is possible to regard Marx’s views on law in 2 ways: from the positivist perspective, according to which law is created in order to reflect subjective interests of the capitalist class, and from the objective perspective. As the positivist approach argues, capitalists have their own subjective perceptions of the society an d thus the laws are being used in order to put their subjective views on the paper. Capitalists have their views on the ways in which they would like to see the world they live in.They do their best to ensure that the laws are adopted to regulate the society according to the most favorable pattern for them. It is also possible to interpret Marx’s views on law from the objective perspective. According to it, law also serves the interests of capitalists but it appears as the result of the objective process. Capitalists dominate in the society and therefore the trends in legislation which serve their interests are fully objective. It is understandable that legislation needs to reflect the interests of the ruling class, and therefore this process is fully objective.In the case of Australian aborigines’ inequality analysis, it is necessary to take positivist perspective on Marx’s understanding of law. Current legislation which exists in Australia was not formed as th e result of objective process. Instead, it was imposed on Australian people in order to oppress them. European colonizers arrived in Australia a few centuries ago, and it was very important for them to ensure that indigenous people in Australia followed the laws which were beneficial for the conquerors. The first steps which were taken by the colonizers included expropriation of lands originally owned by them.The following steps were both positive and negative. On one hand, colonizers offered new health and educational benefits to the aborigines, which improved their lifestyle. On the other hand, aborigines saw the oppression of their culture. For example, they were not allowed to speak their native language in many situations, and children of aborigines were taken from their families. For Australian indigenous people, their traditions were one of the most important parts of their lives, and thus they witnessed deep humiliation as the result of colonizers’ policy. Aborigines did not need Europeans to dictate them their policy in everything; they would much rather prefer to carry out decisions on their own, as they did in previous years.They wanted to participate in the legislative process in the country when it comes to their rights and duties. Unfortunately, they never got a chance for that. Australian government still considers itself much more proficient in the aborigines’ affairs than aborigines themselves, and therefore seeks to regulate their lives according to its principles and ideas.Some changes have been recently made in order to improve the situation, but they are not sufficient in this situation, as Marx would mark. ASTIC, a commission dealing with aborigines’ rights, was replaced by a more efficient advisory board, the members of which included aborigines themselves. Even though this board is obviously going to be more efficient in addressing aborigines’’ rights, it is not capable to make a radical enough change in the society. The number of problems from which Australian natives are currently suffering is literally overwhelming, and small change in legislation will not be able to minimize their effect significantly.For example, aborigines’ women are dying at a very early age, and this tendency needs to be stopped by radical methods. The expectancy of live of male aborigines is still 21 year shorter than other male Australians. According to statistics, even people in such poor countries as Bangladesh, Nepal and others have higher standards of life and much better health than Australian aborigines, despite the fact that Australia is currently considered one of the world’s wealthiest nations with good healthcare level.This evidence proves that there is a great lag between the levels of health services which are received by Australian aborigines, in comparison with other Australians. Even though some improvements in health services for Australian indigenous people have been made, according to the evidence of the article, they did not have any major positive effect on the health of the nation. Health is a very important characteristic of any nation, and without improving the healthcare system in Australia, it will be impossible to achieve any positive changes in the development of native people.The concept of â€Å"alienation†, which has been suggested by Karl Marx, can also be applied to analyze the issues connected with Australian aborigines. According to Marx, in the capitalist society, people are estranged from the results of their work. They are forced to work but unfortunately they are not the ones to take advantage of the results of their work.The owners of the factories, in which employees work, are the ones benefiting from the products which are created by the workers. Marx mentioned many times that such a society is characterized by alienation because workers are unable to take advantage of the results of their own work. The society based on the concept of alienation is destined to fail because at some point the relations which have got established in it will stop working.Aborigines do not represent a working class per se, but they do represent an oppressed class which is not able to take advantage from the results of their work. If in the past Australian aborigines were able to use their results of work for their own benefit, the situation changed rapidly after the European colonization began. Indigenous people were estranged from the results of work which they had been doing for centuries. They feel alienated in the new society. As it was mentioned above, laws in the Australian society have been created to serve the interests of the colonizers, and aborigines are therefore left behind in many aspects of life.Even though the government claims that they have equal rights with all of the other members of the society, figures show that the level of life of aborigines is much lower. These people are forced to suffer from high rate of un-employment and racism, which increase their alienation to an even greater degree. Aborigines state that they are experiencing institutionalized racism in many aspects of their lives, and no steps have been taken by the government to bring it to an end. The policy of welfare is also not fit to address aborigines’ rights.Many recommendations could be given to the Australian decision-makers in order to improve the situation with aborigines in the country. Karl Marx would claim that radical change will need to take place in Australian society in order to bring it to equilibrium. In his theory, Marx argued that all of the characteristic features of the capitalist production created a solid basis for the conflicts between social classes of capitalists and workers. According to Marx, the exploitation of workers provided on all levels of production, their estrangement from the results of work all were the reasons of the inevitable changes in the future.The fact that s urplus value was obtained by the capitalist was also one of the arguments for the future change in the structure. The class of workers realized that the results of their work were taken by the capitalist even though they were the ones who actually created the value. The dialectics argues that contradictions are the driving force of progress. Once contradictions appear in some system, the system will need to undergo many changes and develop until the new level in which the synthesis of new qualities will be finally reached. Therefore, as it was correctly noticed by Marx, the phase of capitalism could not be completely over- it would just develop until its new phase socialism and the most positive features of both systems would be present in the final synthesis of the two systems. In case of Australian society, the law of dialectics would ensure that aborigines eventually occupied a decent place in the society.In order to achieve that, Karl Marx would suggest applying one of his favor ite concepts- â€Å"re-education†. All of the aborigines would have to be re-educated for them to be able to occupy all of the high-paying jobs along with other Australians. As the result of increased earnings, aborigines would be able to spend more money on healthcare and thus increase life expectancy and health of their race. Unemployment among indigenous people would rapidly decrease because more and more aborigines would be able to occupy positions in various spheres. Domestic violence and crime would wane as the result of improved education and level of life.In conclusion, it is necessary to mark that Karl Marx’s theory is very applicable for the analysis of the situation with aborigines in Australia. Even though Karl Marx did not ponder over the issues of Australian aborigines, his concepts can be very helpful in the analysis of the phenomenon and creation of recommendations to improve the level of life of aborigines.Bibliography.Altschuler, R. (2000), The Living Legacy of Marx, Durkheim and Weber: Applications and Analyses of Classical Sociological Theory by Modern Social Scientists. Gordian Knot Books, USA. Eastman Max, Marx Karl (1959). Capital, the Communist Manifesto and Other Writings. The Modern Library. Fromm, Erich 91966). Marx's Concept of Man. New York: Frederick Ungar. Giddens, Anthony (1971). Capitalism and Modern Social Theory: An Analysis of the Writings of Marx, Durkheim and Max Weber. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Kivisto, P. (2004), Illuminating Social Life: Classical and Contemporary Theory Revisited, 3rd ed., Pine Forge, Thousand Oaks. Peterson G. Paul. (1994), Karl Marx and His Vision of Salvation: The Natural Law and Private Property. Review of Social Economy. Volume: 52. Issue: 3. Ritzer, G. (1992), Classical Sociological theory. NY: McGraw Hill. Schlatter, Richard (1951). Private Property. London, UK: George Allen & Unwin. Newspaper analysis by Marx, Durkheim or Weber`s Theories Newspaper analysis by Marx, Durkheim or Weber`s Theories.The issue of inequality has been widely discussed in many different contexts during various periods of human history. The fate of Australian aborigines requires special attention, due to its importance in the modern Australian society. As the article â€Å"Challenge to Improve Aborigines’ Lot† suggests, Australian aborigines claim that they are discriminated against and that they do not have equal rights with other members of Australian society. They state that most of the problems which they are currently facing come from their inequality in the society. They are destined to suffer from high rates of unemployment, racism, shorter life expectancy, high mortality rates among children and many other problems.Aborigines claim that they do not have equal opportunities with other members of society, and therefore they are not able to enjoy benefits of Australian society as much as other Australians. Theory of sagacious theorist Karl Marx supports the thesis of Jim Everett, one of the aborigines’ leaders, concerning the importance of fighting for their rights and even establishing an autonomous state of aborigines for their benefit. Karl Marx argued in his theory that dominant class oppresses working class in the society, which leads to alienation and estrangement of the working class from the results of its work.An important thesis which supports the main idea of the article is that, according to Marx, laws have been designed to serve the interests of capitalism and the ruling class of capitalists. Therefore, the laws in Australian society have been created to serve the interests of the dominant class and oppress aborigines. As Marx claimed, capitalists are able to oppress the working class with the help of the laws which exist in the society. Every single law which regulates the relations in the society is created in order to further increase the gap between the ruling class and the worki ng class. Working people get poorer and poorer the more they produce because capitalists take the surplus value which they create.Laws let capitalists obtain the profits which are originated by companies. Even though working people would probably like to change the law and be capable to benefit from the results of their own work, they are not able to do that because they do not have enough power. Aborigines would like to change the law in such a way so that they are able to get all of the benefits from the society in the same manner as the ruling class is getting them. Unfortunately, they are not able to do that because the laws in Australian society have been created to serve the interests of the ruling elite.It is possible to regard Marx’s views on law in 2 ways: from the positivist perspective, according to which law is created in order to reflect subjective interests of the capitalist class, and from the objective perspective. As the positivist approach argues, capitalist s have their own subjective perceptions of the society and thus the laws are being used in order to put their subjective views on the paper. Capitalists have their views on the ways in which they would like to see the world they live in. They do their best to ensure that the laws are adopted to regulate the society according to the most favorable pattern for them. It is also possible to interpret Marx’s views on law from the objective perspective. According to it, law also serves the interests of capitalists but it appears as the result of the objective process. Capitalists dominate in the society and therefore the trends in legislation which serve their interests are fully objective. It is understandable that legislation needs to reflect the interests of the ruling class, and therefore this process is fully objective.In the case of Australian aborigines’ inequality analysis, it is necessary to take positivist perspective on Marx’s understanding of law. Current legislation which exists in Australia was not formed as the result of objective process. Instead, it was imposed on Australian people in order to oppress them. European colonizers arrived in Australia a few centuries ago, and it was very important for them to ensure that indigenous people in Australia followed the laws which were beneficial for the conquerors. The first steps which were taken by the colonizers included expropriation of lands originally owned by them. The following steps were both positive and negative. On one hand, colonizers offered new health and educational benefits to the aborigines, which improved their lifestyle.On the other hand, aborigines saw the oppression of their culture. For example, they were not allowed to speak their native language in many situations, and children of aborigines were taken from their families. For Australian indigenous people, their traditions were one of the most important parts of their lives, and thus they witnessed deep humiliati on as the result of colonizers’ policy. Aborigines did not need Europeans to dictate them their policy in everything; they would much rather prefer to carry out decisions on their own, as they did in previous years. They wanted to participate in the legislative process in the country when it comes to their rights and duties. Unfortunately, they never got a chance for that. Australian government still considers itself much more proficient in the aborigines’ affairs than aborigines themselves, and therefore seeks to regulate their lives according to its principles and ideas.Some changes have been recently made in order to improve the situation, but they are not sufficient in this situation, as Marx would mark. ASTIC, a commission dealing with aborigines’ rights, was replaced by a more efficient advisory board, the members of which included aborigines themselves. Even though this board is obviously going to be more efficient in addressing aborigines’’ rights, it is not capable to make a radical enough change in the society. The number of problems from which Australian natives are currently suffering is literally overwhelming, and small change in legislation will not be able to minimize their effect significantly.For example, aborigines’ women are dying at a very early age, and this tendency needs to be stopped by radical methods. The expectancy of live of male aborigines is still 21 year shorter than other male Australians. According to statistics, even people in such poor countries as Bangladesh, Nepal and others have higher standards of life and much better health than Australian aborigines, despite the fact that Australia is currently considered one of the world’s wealthiest nations with good healthcare level.This evidence proves that there is a great lag between the levels of health services which are received by Australian aborigines, in comparison with other Australians. Even though some improvements in healt h services for Australian indigenous people have been made, according to the evidence of the article, they did not have any major positive effect on the health of the nation. Health is a very important characteristic of any nation, and without improving the healthcare system in Australia, it will be impossible to achieve any positive changes in the development of native people.The concept of â€Å"alienation†, which has been suggested by Karl Marx, can also be applied to analyze the issues connected with Australian aborigines. According to Marx, in the capitalist society, people are estranged from the results of their work. They are forced to work but unfortunately they are not the ones to take advantage of the results of their work. The owners of the factories, in which employees work, are the ones benefiting from the products which are created by the workers. Marx mentioned many times that such a society is characterized by alienation because workers are unable to take adva ntage of the results of their own work. The society based on the concept of alienation is destined to fail because at some point the relations which have got established in it will stop working.Aborigines do not represent a working class per se, but they do represent an oppressed class which is not able to take advantage from the results of their work. If in the past Australian aborigines were able to use their results of work for their own benefit, the situation changed rapidly after the European colonization began. Indigenous people were estranged from the results of work which they had been doing for centuries. They feel alienated in the new society. As it was mentioned above, laws in the Australian society have been created to serve the interests of the colonizers, and aborigines are therefore left behind in many aspects of life. Even though the government claims that they have equal rights with all of the other members of the society, figures show that the level of life of abor igines is much lower.These people are forced to suffer from high rate of un-employment and racism, which increase their alienation to an even greater degree. Aborigines state that they are experiencing institutionalized racism in many aspects of their lives, and no steps have been taken by the government to bring it to an end. The policy of welfare is also not fit to address aborigines’ rights.Many recommendations could be given to the Australian decision-makers in order to improve the situation with aborigines in the country. Karl Marx would claim that radical change will need to take place in Australian society in order to bring it to equilibrium. In his theory, Marx argued that all of the characteristic features of the capitalist production created a solid basis for the conflicts between social classes of capitalists and workers. According to Marx, the exploitation of workers provided on all levels of production, their estrangement from the results of work all were the rea sons of the inevitable changes in the future. The fact that surplus value was obtained by the capitalist was also one of the arguments for the future change in the structure.The class of workers realized that the results of their work were taken by the capitalist even though they were the ones who actually created the value. The dialectics argues that contradictions are the driving force of progress. Once contradictions appear in some system, the system will need to undergo many changes and develop until the new level in which the synthesis of new qualities will be finally reached. Therefore, as it was correctly noticed by Marx, the phase of capitalism could not be completely over- it would just develop until its new phase socialism and the most positive features of both systems would be present in the final synthesis of the two systems. In case of Australian society, the law of dialectics would ensure that aborigines eventually occupied a decent place in the society.In order to ach ieve that, Karl Marx would suggest applying one of his favorite concepts- â€Å"re-education†. All of the aborigines would have to be re-educated for them to be able to occupy all of the high-paying jobs along with other Australians. As the result of increased earnings, aborigines would be able to spend more money on healthcare and thus increase life expectancy and health of their race. Unemployment among indigenous people would rapidly decrease because more and more aborigines would be able to occupy positions in various spheres. Domestic violence and crime would wane as the result of improved education and level of life.In conclusion, it is necessary to mark that Karl Marx’s theory is very applicable for the analysis of the situation with aborigines in Australia. Even though Karl Marx did not ponder over the issues of Australian aborigines, his concepts can be very helpful in the analysis of the phenomenon and creation of recommendations to improve the level of life of aborigines.Bibliography.Altschuler, R. (2000), The Living Legacy of Marx, Durkheim and Weber: Applications and Analyses of Classical Sociological Theory by Modern Social Scientists. Gordian Knot Books, USA. Eastman Max, Marx Karl (1959). Capital, the Communist Manifesto and Other Writings. The Modern Library. Fromm, Erich 91966). Marx's Concept of Man. New York: Frederick Ungar. Giddens, Anthony (1971). Capitalism and Modern Social Theory: An Analysis of the Writings of Marx, Durkheim and Max Weber. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Kivisto, P. (2004), Illuminating Social Life: Classical and Contemporary Theory Revisited, 3rd ed., Pine Forge, Thousand Oaks. Peterson G. Paul. (1994), Karl Marx and His Vision of Salvation: The Natural Law and Private Property. Review of Social Economy. Volume: 52. Issue: 3. Ritzer, G. (1992), Classical Sociological theory. NY: McGraw Hill. Schlatter, Richard (1951). Private Property. London, UK: George Allen & Unwin.